Characterization of thermally modified short and long rotation teaks and the effects on coatings performance
Keywords:
Dimensional stability, durability, heat treatment, Tectona grandis, weatheringAbstract
Many wood processing industries use short rotation teak, which has lower quality especially in durability and dimensional stability. Heat treatment is an eco-friendly method to improve dimensional stability and durability of wood. The objectives of the study were to investigate the effects of thermal modification on chemical composition, colour, dimensional stability and durability as well as coating’s performance after accelerated weathering of short and long rotation teak for exterior utilization. In this study, the samples were heated in oven at 220 °C for 20 h under nitrogen atmosphere. Results showed that independently of growth conditions teak woods underwent hemicelluloses degradation and an increase of lignin content after heat treatment. Extractives contents were lower in short rotation than in long rotation teak, and decreased in all cases after heat treatments. Dimensional stability was considerably improved as indicated by anti-swelling efficiency values of 64.9% and 58.9% for short and long rotation teak, respectively. Heated teak woods were more resistant against Trametes versicolor and the durability of short-rotation teak increased from moderate to very durable. Coatings on heat treated teaks had better bonding quality and better photo-stability when compared to unheated. Heated short rotation teak could be considered for exterior application.
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References
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Aloui, F.; Ahajji, A.; Irmouli, Y.; George, B.; Charrier, B.; Merlin, A. 2007. Inorganic UV absorbers for the photostabilisation of wood-clear coating system: comparison with organic UV absorbers. Applied Surface Science 253 (8): 3737-3745.
ASTM International. 2007. Standard test methods for adhesion by tape test ASTM D-3359. 2007. West Conshohocken.
Ayadi, N.; Lejeune, F.; Charrier, F.; Charrier, B.; Merlin, A. 2013. Color stability of heat-treated wood during artificial weathering. Holz Roh Werkst 61 (3): 221-226.
Basri, E.; Wahyudi, I. 2013. Wood basic properties of jati plus perhutani from different ages and their relationships to drying properties and qualities. JPHH 31(2): 93-102.
Bekhta, P.; Niemz, P. 2003. Effect of high temperature on the change in color, dimensional stability and mechanical properties of spruce wood. Holzforschung 57 (5):539-546.
Bhat, K.M.; Florence, E.J.M. 2003. Natural decay resistance of juvenile teak wood grown in high input plantations. Holzforschung 57 (5): 453-455.
Boonstra, M.J.; Acker, J.V.; Kegel, E. 2007. Optimisation of a two-stage heat treatment process: durability aspects. Wood Sci Technol 41 (1): 31-57.
Boonstra, M.J.; Tjeerdsma, B. 2006. Chemical analysis of heated softwoods. Holz Roh Werkst 64 (3): 204-211.
Candelier, K.; Dumarcay, S.; Petrissans, A.; Desharnais, L.; Gérardin, P. 2013. Comparison of chemical composition and decay durability of heat treated wood cured under different inert atmospheres: nitrogen or vacuum. Polym Degrad Stab 98 (2): 677-681.
Candelier, K.; Thevenon, M.F.; Petrissans, A.; Dumarcay, S.; Gérardin, P.; Petrissans, M. 2016. Control of wood thermal treatment and its effects on decay resistance: a review. Ann For Sci 73 (3): 571-583.
Chaouch, M.; Petrissans, M.; Petrissans, A.; Gérardin, P. 2010. Use of wood elemental composition to predict heat treatment intensity and decay resistance of different softwood and hardwood species. Polym Degrad Stab 95 (12):2255-2259.
Daniel, G. 2003. Wood deterioration and preservation. American Chemical Society press: Washington DC, pp 34-72.
Darmawan, W.; Rahayu, I.S.; Tanaka, C.; Marchal, R. 2006. Chemical and mechanical wearing of high speed steel and tungsten carbide tools by tropical woods. JTFS 18 (4): 166-172
Darmawan, W.; Nandika, D.; Sari, R.K.; Sitompul, A.; Rahayu, I.; Gardner, D. 2015. Juvenile and mature wood characteristics of short and long rotation teak in Java. IAWA J 36(4): 429-443.
Darmawan, W.; Nandika, D.; Noviyanti, E.; Irsan, A.; Dumasari, L.; Douglas, G.; Gérardin, P. 2018. Wettability and bonding quality of exterior coatings on jabon and sengon wood surface. J Coatings Technol 15(1): 95-104.
European committee for standardization. EN. 1986. Wood preservatives-determination of toxic values of wood preservatives against wood destroying basidiomycetes cultured on agar medium EN 113 .1986. .
Engonga, P.; Schneider, R.; Gérardin, P.; Loubinoux, B. 2000. Preparation and dimensional stability of wood grafted with alkyl chains. Holz Roh Werkst 58 (4): 284-286.
Esteves, B.M.; Pereira, H.M. 2009. Wood modification by heat treatment: a review. BioResources 4(1):370-404.
Garcia, R.A.; Lopes, J.D.O.; Nascimento, A.M.; Latorraca, J.V.D.F. 2014. Color stability of weathered heat-treated teak wood. Maderas-Cienc Tecnol 16 (4): 453-462.
Gérardin, P. 2016. New alternatives for wood preservation based on thermal and chemical modification of wood-a review. Ann For Sci 73(3): 559-570.
González-Peña, M.M.; Curling, S.F.; Hale, M.D.C. 2009. On the effect of heat on the chemical composition and dimensions of thermally-modified wood. Polym Degrad Stab 94 (12): 2184-2193.
Hakkou, M.; Petrissans, M.; Gérardin, P.; Zoulalian, A. 2006. Investigations of the reasons for fungal durability of heat-treated beech wood. Polym Degrad Stab 91 (2):393-397.
Haupt, M.; Leithoff, H.; Meier, D.; Puls, J.; Richter, H.G.; Faix, O. 2003. Heartwood extractive and natural durability of platation-grown teakwood (Tectona grandis L.) - a case study. Holz Roh Werkst61 (6): 473-474.
Highley, T.L.; Micales, J.A. 1990. Effect of aromatic monomers on production of carbohydrate-degrading enzymes by white-rot and brown-rot fungi. FEMS Microbiol Lett 66 (1-3): 15-22.
Hill, C.A.S. 2006. Wood modification: chemical, thermal and other processes. John willey & sons: England, p99-127.
Hillis, W.E. 1984. High temperature and chemical effects on wood stability. Wood Sci Technol 18: 281-293.
Huang, X.; Kocaefe, D.; Kocaefe, Y.; Boluk, Y.; Pichette, A. 2012. Study of the degradation behavior of heat-treated jack pine (Pinus banksiana) under artificial sunlight irradiation. Polym Degrad Stab 97 (7): 1197-1214.
Indonesia National Standard . 2014. Wood resistance against microorganism. 7207. National Standardization Agency: Indonesia.
Jämsä, S.; Ahola, P.; Viitaniemi, P. 2000. Long-term natural weathering of coated thermowood. Pigmen Resin Technol 29(2): 68-74.
Kamdem, D.P.; Pizzi, A.; Jermannaud, A. 2002. Durability of heat-treated wood. Holz Roh Werkst 60 (1):1-6.
Kebbi-Benkeder, Z.; Colin, F.; Dumarcay, S.; Gérardin, P. 2014. Quantification and characterization of knotwood extractives of 12 European sofwood and hardwood species. Ann For Sci 72(2): 277-284.
Li, M.Y.; Cheng, S.C.; Li, D.; Wang, S.N.; Huang, A.M.; Sun, S.Q. 2015. Structural characterization of steam-heat treated Tectona grandis wood analyzed by FT-IR and 2D correlation spectroscopy. Chin Chem Lett 26 (2): 221-225.
Lukmandaru, G.; Takahashi, K. 2008. Variation in the natural termite resistance of teak (Tectona grandis Lin. Fil.) wood as a function of tree age. Ann For Sci 65 (7): 8p.
Lukmandaru, G. 2011. Variability in the natural termite resistance of plantation teak wood and its relations with wood extractive content and color properties. JFR 8 (1): 17-31.
Martawijaya, A.; Kartasujana, I.; Kadir, K.; Prawira, S. 2005. Atlas kayu Indonesia. Forest Products Research Institute: Bogor.
Mburu, F.; Dumarcay, S.; Bocquet, J.F.; Petrissans, M.; Gérardin, P. 2008. Effect of chemical modifications caused by heat treatment on mechanical properties of Grevillea robusta wood. Polym Degrad Stab 93 (2): 401-405.
Mburu, F.; Dumarcay, S.; Huber, F.; Petrissans, M.; Gérardin, P. 2007. Evaluation of thermally modified Grevillea robusta heartwood as an alternative to shortage of wood resource in Kenya: Characterisation of physicochemical properties and improvement of bio-resistance. Bioresource Technology 98 (18): 3478-3486.
Méndez-Mejías, L.D.; Moya, R. 2016. Effects on density, shrinking, color changing, and chemical surface analysis through FTIR of Tectona grandis thermo-treated. Sci For 44 (112): 811-820.
Miranda, I.; Sousa, V.; Helena, P. 2011. Wood properties of teak (Tectona grandis) from a mature unmanaged stand in East Timor. J Wood Sci 57 (3): 171-178.
Moya, R.; Bond, B.; Quesada, H. 2014. A review of heartwood properties of Tectona grandis trees from fast-growth plantations. Wood Sci Technol 48 (2): 411-433.
Niamké, F.B.; Amusant, N.; Charpentier, J.P.; Chaix, G.; Baissac, Y.; Boutahar, N.; Adima, A.A.; Kati-Coulibaly, S.; Jay-Allemand, C. 2011. Relationship between biochemical attributes (non-structural carbohydrates and phenolics) and natural durability against fungi in dry teak wood (Tectona grandis L. f.). Ann For Sci 68 (1): 201-211.
Petrič, M.; Knehtl, B.; Krause, A.; Militz, H.; Pavlič, M.; Pétrissans, M.; Rapp, A.; Tomazič, M.; Welzbacher, C.; Gérardin, P. 2007. Wettability of waterborne coatings on chemically and thermally modified pine wood. J Coat Technol Res 4 (2): 203-206.
Rautkari, L.; Hill, CAS.; Curling, S.; Jalaludin, Z.; Ormondryoyd, G. 2013. What is the role of the accessibility of wood hydroxyl group in controlling moisture content? J Master Sci 48(18) 6352-6356.
Richter, H.G.; Leithoff, H.; Sonntag, U. 2003. Characterisation and extension of juvenile wood in plantation grown teak (Tectona grandis L.f) from Ghana. In: Proceedings of the international conference on quality timber products of teak from sustainable forest management, 2-5 December, Peechi, Indi.
Roux, M.L.; Eozniak, E.; Miller, E.R.; Boxall, J.; Bottcher, P.; Kropf, F.; Sell, J. 1988. Natural weathering of various surface coatings on five at four European sites. Holz Roh Werkst 46 (5): 165-170.
Rowell, R.M. 2005. Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites. CRC Press LLC: United State.
Sehlstedt-Persson, M. 2003. Color response to heat-treatment of extractives and sap from pine and spruce. In: 8th International IUFRO wood drying conference, 24-29 August, Brasov, Romania.
Sivonen, H.; Maunu, S.L.; Sundholm, F.; Jamsa, S.; Viitaniemi, P. 2002. Magnetic resonance studies of thermally modifies wood. Holzforschung 56 (6):648-654.
Sundqvist, B.; Moren, T. 2002. The influence of wood polymers and extractives on wood color induced by hydrothermal treatment. Holz Roh Werkst 60 (5): 375-376.
Šušteršic, Z.; Mohareb, A.; Chaouch, M.; Petrissans, M.; Petric, M.; Gérardin, P. 2010. Presiction of the decay resistance of heat treated wood on basis of its elemental composition. Polym Degrad Stab 95 (1):94-97
Thulasidas, P.K.; Bhat, K.M. 2007. Chemical extractive compounds determining the brown-rot decay resistance of teak wood. Holz Roh Werkst 65 (2): 121-124.
Uribe, B.E.B.; Ayala, O.A. 2015. Characterization of three wood species (oak, teak, and chanul) before and after heat treatment. J Indian Acad Wood Sci 12 (1): 54-62.
Vernois, M. 2001. Heat treatment of wood in France-State of the art. Centre Technique du Bois et de l’Ameublement, Paris. Available online <Available online http://www.thermaltreatedwood.com/Worldwide/France.pdf > (access 26/02/2018)
Vu, M.T.; Li, J. 2010. Effect of heat treatment on the change in color and dimensional stability of acacia hybrid wood. BioResources 5 (2): 1257-1267.
Windeisen, E.; Klassen, A.; Wegener, G. 2003. On the chemical characterization of plantation teakwood from Panama. Holz Roh Werkst 61 (6): 416-418.
Akinosho, H.; Dumitrache, A.; Natzke, J.; Muchero, W.; Jawdy, S.S.; Tukan, G.A.; Brown, S.D.; Ragaukas, A.J. 2017. Effect of biomass accessibility and klason lignin contents during consolidated bioprocessing in Populus trichocarpa. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 5 (6): 5075-5081.
Aloui, F.; Ahajji, A.; Irmouli, Y.; George, B.; Charrier, B.; Merlin, A. 2007. Inorganic UV absorbers for the photostabilisation of wood-clear coating system: comparison with organic UV absorbers. Applied Surface Science 253 (8): 3737-3745.
ASTM International. 2007. Standard test methods for adhesion by tape test ASTM D-3359. 2007. West Conshohocken.
Ayadi, N.; Lejeune, F.; Charrier, F.; Charrier, B.; Merlin, A. 2013. Color stability of heat-treated wood during artificial weathering. Holz Roh Werkst 61 (3): 221-226.
Basri, E.; Wahyudi, I. 2013. Wood basic properties of jati plus perhutani from different ages and their relationships to drying properties and qualities. JPHH 31(2): 93-102.
Bekhta, P.; Niemz, P. 2003. Effect of high temperature on the change in color, dimensional stability and mechanical properties of spruce wood. Holzforschung 57 (5):539-546.
Bhat, K.M.; Florence, E.J.M. 2003. Natural decay resistance of juvenile teak wood grown in high input plantations. Holzforschung 57 (5): 453-455.
Boonstra, M.J.; Acker, J.V.; Kegel, E. 2007. Optimisation of a two-stage heat treatment process: durability aspects. Wood Sci Technol 41 (1): 31-57.
Boonstra, M.J.; Tjeerdsma, B. 2006. Chemical analysis of heated softwoods. Holz Roh Werkst 64 (3): 204-211.
Candelier, K.; Dumarcay, S.; Petrissans, A.; Desharnais, L.; Gérardin, P. 2013. Comparison of chemical composition and decay durability of heat treated wood cured under different inert atmospheres: nitrogen or vacuum. Polym Degrad Stab 98 (2): 677-681.
Candelier, K.; Thevenon, M.F.; Petrissans, A.; Dumarcay, S.; Gérardin, P.; Petrissans, M. 2016. Control of wood thermal treatment and its effects on decay resistance: a review. Ann For Sci 73 (3): 571-583.
Chaouch, M.; Petrissans, M.; Petrissans, A.; Gérardin, P. 2010. Use of wood elemental composition to predict heat treatment intensity and decay resistance of different softwood and hardwood species. Polym Degrad Stab 95 (12):2255-2259.
Daniel, G. 2003. Wood deterioration and preservation. American Chemical Society press: Washington DC, pp 34-72.
Darmawan, W.; Rahayu, I.S.; Tanaka, C.; Marchal, R. 2006. Chemical and mechanical wearing of high speed steel and tungsten carbide tools by tropical woods. JTFS 18 (4): 166-172
Darmawan, W.; Nandika, D.; Sari, R.K.; Sitompul, A.; Rahayu, I.; Gardner, D. 2015. Juvenile and mature wood characteristics of short and long rotation teak in Java. IAWA J 36(4): 429-443.
Darmawan, W.; Nandika, D.; Noviyanti, E.; Irsan, A.; Dumasari, L.; Douglas, G.; Gérardin, P. 2018. Wettability and bonding quality of exterior coatings on jabon and sengon wood surface. J Coatings Technol 15(1): 95-104.
European committee for standardization. EN. 1986. Wood preservatives-determination of toxic values of wood preservatives against wood destroying basidiomycetes cultured on agar medium EN 113 .1986. .
Engonga, P.; Schneider, R.; Gérardin, P.; Loubinoux, B. 2000. Preparation and dimensional stability of wood grafted with alkyl chains. Holz Roh Werkst 58 (4): 284-286.
Esteves, B.M.; Pereira, H.M. 2009. Wood modification by heat treatment: a review. BioResources 4(1):370-404.
Garcia, R.A.; Lopes, J.D.O.; Nascimento, A.M.; Latorraca, J.V.D.F. 2014. Color stability of weathered heat-treated teak wood. Maderas-Cienc Tecnol 16 (4): 453-462.
Gérardin, P. 2016. New alternatives for wood preservation based on thermal and chemical modification of wood-a review. Ann For Sci 73(3): 559-570.
González-Peña, M.M.; Curling, S.F.; Hale, M.D.C. 2009. On the effect of heat on the chemical composition and dimensions of thermally-modified wood. Polym Degrad Stab 94 (12): 2184-2193.
Hakkou, M.; Petrissans, M.; Gérardin, P.; Zoulalian, A. 2006. Investigations of the reasons for fungal durability of heat-treated beech wood. Polym Degrad Stab 91 (2):393-397.
Haupt, M.; Leithoff, H.; Meier, D.; Puls, J.; Richter, H.G.; Faix, O. 2003. Heartwood extractive and natural durability of platation-grown teakwood (Tectona grandis L.) - a case study. Holz Roh Werkst61 (6): 473-474.
Highley, T.L.; Micales, J.A. 1990. Effect of aromatic monomers on production of carbohydrate-degrading enzymes by white-rot and brown-rot fungi. FEMS Microbiol Lett 66 (1-3): 15-22.
Hill, C.A.S. 2006. Wood modification: chemical, thermal and other processes. John willey & sons: England, p99-127.
Hillis, W.E. 1984. High temperature and chemical effects on wood stability. Wood Sci Technol 18: 281-293.
Huang, X.; Kocaefe, D.; Kocaefe, Y.; Boluk, Y.; Pichette, A. 2012. Study of the degradation behavior of heat-treated jack pine (Pinus banksiana) under artificial sunlight irradiation. Polym Degrad Stab 97 (7): 1197-1214.
Indonesia National Standard . 2014. Wood resistance against microorganism. 7207. National Standardization Agency: Indonesia.
Jämsä, S.; Ahola, P.; Viitaniemi, P. 2000. Long-term natural weathering of coated thermowood. Pigmen Resin Technol 29(2): 68-74.
Kamdem, D.P.; Pizzi, A.; Jermannaud, A. 2002. Durability of heat-treated wood. Holz Roh Werkst 60 (1):1-6.
Kebbi-Benkeder, Z.; Colin, F.; Dumarcay, S.; Gérardin, P. 2014. Quantification and characterization of knotwood extractives of 12 European sofwood and hardwood species. Ann For Sci 72(2): 277-284.
Li, M.Y.; Cheng, S.C.; Li, D.; Wang, S.N.; Huang, A.M.; Sun, S.Q. 2015. Structural characterization of steam-heat treated Tectona grandis wood analyzed by FT-IR and 2D correlation spectroscopy. Chin Chem Lett 26 (2): 221-225.
Lukmandaru, G.; Takahashi, K. 2008. Variation in the natural termite resistance of teak (Tectona grandis Lin. Fil.) wood as a function of tree age. Ann For Sci 65 (7): 8p.
Lukmandaru, G. 2011. Variability in the natural termite resistance of plantation teak wood and its relations with wood extractive content and color properties. JFR 8 (1): 17-31.
Martawijaya, A.; Kartasujana, I.; Kadir, K.; Prawira, S. 2005. Atlas kayu Indonesia. Forest Products Research Institute: Bogor.
Mburu, F.; Dumarcay, S.; Bocquet, J.F.; Petrissans, M.; Gérardin, P. 2008. Effect of chemical modifications caused by heat treatment on mechanical properties of Grevillea robusta wood. Polym Degrad Stab 93 (2): 401-405.
Mburu, F.; Dumarcay, S.; Huber, F.; Petrissans, M.; Gérardin, P. 2007. Evaluation of thermally modified Grevillea robusta heartwood as an alternative to shortage of wood resource in Kenya: Characterisation of physicochemical properties and improvement of bio-resistance. Bioresource Technology 98 (18): 3478-3486.
Méndez-Mejías, L.D.; Moya, R. 2016. Effects on density, shrinking, color changing, and chemical surface analysis through FTIR of Tectona grandis thermo-treated. Sci For 44 (112): 811-820.
Miranda, I.; Sousa, V.; Helena, P. 2011. Wood properties of teak (Tectona grandis) from a mature unmanaged stand in East Timor. J Wood Sci 57 (3): 171-178.
Moya, R.; Bond, B.; Quesada, H. 2014. A review of heartwood properties of Tectona grandis trees from fast-growth plantations. Wood Sci Technol 48 (2): 411-433.
Niamké, F.B.; Amusant, N.; Charpentier, J.P.; Chaix, G.; Baissac, Y.; Boutahar, N.; Adima, A.A.; Kati-Coulibaly, S.; Jay-Allemand, C. 2011. Relationship between biochemical attributes (non-structural carbohydrates and phenolics) and natural durability against fungi in dry teak wood (Tectona grandis L. f.). Ann For Sci 68 (1): 201-211.
Petrič, M.; Knehtl, B.; Krause, A.; Militz, H.; Pavlič, M.; Pétrissans, M.; Rapp, A.; Tomazič, M.; Welzbacher, C.; Gérardin, P. 2007. Wettability of waterborne coatings on chemically and thermally modified pine wood. J Coat Technol Res 4 (2): 203-206.
Rautkari, L.; Hill, CAS.; Curling, S.; Jalaludin, Z.; Ormondryoyd, G. 2013. What is the role of the accessibility of wood hydroxyl group in controlling moisture content? J Master Sci 48(18) 6352-6356.
Richter, H.G.; Leithoff, H.; Sonntag, U. 2003. Characterisation and extension of juvenile wood in plantation grown teak (Tectona grandis L.f) from Ghana. In: Proceedings of the international conference on quality timber products of teak from sustainable forest management, 2-5 December, Peechi, Indi.
Roux, M.L.; Eozniak, E.; Miller, E.R.; Boxall, J.; Bottcher, P.; Kropf, F.; Sell, J. 1988. Natural weathering of various surface coatings on five at four European sites. Holz Roh Werkst 46 (5): 165-170.
Rowell, R.M. 2005. Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites. CRC Press LLC: United State.
Sehlstedt-Persson, M. 2003. Color response to heat-treatment of extractives and sap from pine and spruce. In: 8th International IUFRO wood drying conference, 24-29 August, Brasov, Romania.
Sivonen, H.; Maunu, S.L.; Sundholm, F.; Jamsa, S.; Viitaniemi, P. 2002. Magnetic resonance studies of thermally modifies wood. Holzforschung 56 (6):648-654.
Sundqvist, B.; Moren, T. 2002. The influence of wood polymers and extractives on wood color induced by hydrothermal treatment. Holz Roh Werkst 60 (5): 375-376.
Šušteršic, Z.; Mohareb, A.; Chaouch, M.; Petrissans, M.; Petric, M.; Gérardin, P. 2010. Presiction of the decay resistance of heat treated wood on basis of its elemental composition. Polym Degrad Stab 95 (1):94-97
Thulasidas, P.K.; Bhat, K.M. 2007. Chemical extractive compounds determining the brown-rot decay resistance of teak wood. Holz Roh Werkst 65 (2): 121-124.
Uribe, B.E.B.; Ayala, O.A. 2015. Characterization of three wood species (oak, teak, and chanul) before and after heat treatment. J Indian Acad Wood Sci 12 (1): 54-62.
Vernois, M. 2001. Heat treatment of wood in France-State of the art. Centre Technique du Bois et de l’Ameublement, Paris. Available online <Available online http://www.thermaltreatedwood.com/Worldwide/France.pdf > (access 26/02/2018)
Vu, M.T.; Li, J. 2010. Effect of heat treatment on the change in color and dimensional stability of acacia hybrid wood. BioResources 5 (2): 1257-1267.
Windeisen, E.; Klassen, A.; Wegener, G. 2003. On the chemical characterization of plantation teakwood from Panama. Holz Roh Werkst 61 (6): 416-418.
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Published
2019-04-01
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Adina Pratiwi, L., Darmawan, W., Priadi, T., George, B., Merlin, A., Gérardin, C., Dumarçay, S., & Gérardin, P. (2019). Characterization of thermally modified short and long rotation teaks and the effects on coatings performance. Maderas-Cienc Tecnol, 21(2), 209–222. Retrieved from https://revistas.ubiobio.cl/index.php/MCT/article/view/3384
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